Laureates of Mustafa(pbuh)Prize 2025

A Journey of Curious Mind

The journey and quest of every researcher’s mind weave a tapestry of questions, experiences, and experiments that shape the path of science. Vahab Mirrokni embarked on this journey from a childhood notebook filled with problems, progressing through school classrooms and robotics competitions to prestigious global universities and major research labs. His diverse experiences reveal that scientific progress is not a linear path but a network of discoveries, experiments, and varied encounters, constantly shaped by interaction with real-world challenges.
His scientific journey from school classrooms to university and industrial research has always been intertwined with discovery and challenges. At Karaj’s School for the Gifted, he spent hours grappling with the toughest questions in high school. Olympiads and global RoboCup competitions were his first arenas of growth, where he learned that confidence and teamwork form the foundation of any great success. He still recalls the day his team won first place in Europe. For him, the experience of collaboration and self-belief was more valuable than the medals.
Entering university set his path apart from conventional education, leading him to Sharif University of Technology, where projects, programming competitions, and robotics deepened his passion for algorithms. These experiences introduced him to creative solutions for complex problems. This approach later became a consistent pattern in his research: breaking down problems into smaller parts, analyzing them meticulously, and reconstructing them in novel ways. It was at this university that he realized that his future lay in theoretical computer science—a choice that, brought him to MIT in Boston in 2005. Surrounded by brilliant minds, he immersed himself in the world of theoretical computer science, an environment that not only taught him to think more deeply but also showed him that science is most valuable when it connects to real life.
A Path To Global Innovation
After graduating from MIT, Mirrokni worked at Amazon and Microsoft Research where he transformed theoretical algorithms into solutions that impact millions of users daily. However, his true destination was Google Research, where he has been active in large-scale projects for more than a decade. Here, he works with interconnected data on a scale that is sometimes as vast as the global population. This experience reminds him that science is meaningful only when it extracts practical solutions from theoretical foundations. He currently leads algorithm research groups in New York, with projects spanning large-scale market algorithms, optimization, graph mining, and next-generation AI initiatives such as Gemini AI.
The world of artificial intelligence remains a constant adventure for him. Each month brings new models and methods that surpass the imagination of yesterday. What amazes him the most is the ability of systems to learn and improve autonomously—a phenomenon that has propelled progress beyond any linear trajectory. A future once predictable over years now transforms in mere months. He sees this uncertainty not as a threat but as a rare opportunity: a chance to create tools and ideas that more deeply intertwine human life with science.
Science, The Product of Collective Effort
Mirrokni consistently emphasizes that no success is truly meaningful unless it is shared with others. He believes that achievements are not solely the result of individual effort but stem from collaboration, trust, and research teams’ collective wisdom. This philosophy is evident throughout his scientific journey, and the Mustafa(pbuh) Prize in 2025, awarded for his work on locality-sensitive hashing based on p-stable distributions, stands as a testament to this perspective. Among his other accolades are the Best Paper Award at the ACM Conference on Electronic Commerce in 2008, the Best Student Paper Award at the ACM-SIAM Symposium in 2005, and the gold medal at Iran’s National Informatics Olympiad in 1996. His family, friends, colleagues, and research teams have all played a significant roles in his successes, and these achievements are the result of mutual trust and collaboration. For this reason, he has released many algorithms and libraries related to graph neural networks and data mining as open-source, enabling others to build upon them and advance scientific progress. For him, science is always a collective endeavor, and no achievement is complete without others’ contributions.
A Life Beyond Algorithms
Mirrokni’s life is not confined to equations and algorithms. From his teenage years playing soccer and ping-pong, where he learned the joy of friendly competition and teamwork, to his present day, when he cherishes the small joys of playing with his children, he has always viewed the balance between science, family, and community as the key to true growth. Spending time with his kids and learning from them mutually is one of the most precious parts of his life, bringing a sense of fulfillment and joy that no scientific milestone can rival.
Alongside his work at Google Research, Mirrokni serves as a visiting professor at the Courant Institute of New York University, teaching algorithms and internet economics. He advises the younger generation: “Now is the best time to dive into research. The rapid advancements in artificial intelligence have created a unique opportunity to turn your dreams into reality faster than ever before. But don’t forget—if you delegate everything to AI, your mind will miss the chance to grow and evolve.” He envisions a future where humans and AI collaborate to solve complex mathematical problems, with algorithms enhancing daily life in fields like medicine, social sciences.
Mirrokni’s story demonstrates that when individual curiosity and effort are intertwined with collaboration and innovation, they can move the world forward. His contributions to the development of algorithms and scientific methods not only advance knowledge but also enable practical applications in future projects and research, paving the way for the next generation of scientific development.
 

In Search of Similarity

Have you ever finished a book and immediately felt like you just lost a friend? A book that spoke to you not just through its content, but through its atmosphere, its prose, and something intangible woven between its lines. Now imagine you’re searching for another book that can rekindle that same feeling. You step into a vast library with shelves arranged in disarray. Novels, books of philosophy, science, history—all jumbled together without clear categories. You begin flipping through the books, hoping to find a familiar spark. As time passes, exhaustion sets in. The books are countless, and what you’re seeking isn’t easily found. Finally, you sit down behind one of the library’s computers. You write a description of that beloved book, and now this human desire becomes a machine’s task. In the world of computers, the challenge grows more complex. This search engine must sift through billions of books to find one that matches your request. How does a computer, navigating a sea of data, identify items that are close in meaning or structure? More importantly, how can it do this quickly and accurately without examining every piece of data one by one? The answer lies in a method that, instead of relying on feelings, uses the language of numbers and formulas to understand similarities—an algorithm based on p-stable distributions, developed by researchers like Vahab Mirrokni, enabling computers to intelligently and rapidly identify similar data without scouring the entire digital landscape.
Similarity in the Language of Numbers
At first glance, similarity might seem like a simple concept. But when we step into the world of data, this simple idea takes on a more precise and distinct form. For computers, everything is just a sequence of numbers. A photo is a list of numbers representing pixels, and a recorded sound is a series of digits capturing frequency fluctuations. In a world where everything is reduced to numbers, similarity must also be defined in terms of numbers. In such a space, to determine how alike two things are, we need to measure how far apart they are. In the logic of machines, the smaller the distance between two sets of data, the less they differ. This is why the concept of distance becomes our primary tool for assessing similarity. However, measuring this distance is itself a significant challenge, as there are various ways to calculate it. To measure this closeness, a method called the LPnorm is used. This method relies on a general formula where changing a number called p alters our perspective on distance. For example, imagine you’ve drawn two points on a piece of paper and want to measure the distance between them. If you place a ruler to draw a straight line between the points, you’re measuring the shortest possible path. This is the case when p equals 2, known in mathematics as the Euclidean distance. Now imagine you can only move vertically or horizontally to get from one point to another. In this case, the distance is calculated by adding the horizontal and vertical movements. This is what happens when p equals 1, known as the Manhattan distance. Essentially, the value of p determines what kind of differences between data the system prioritizes.
The Computer’s Ruler
Now, let’s bring this concept of distance into the digital realm, where data is no longer images, sounds, or sentences but vectors of numbers. As mentioned earlier, computers measure similarity between two images or texts by calculating the distance between their vectors. For instance, when a search engine determines whether two phrases refer to the same topic, or when a music app suggests similar songs, what’s happening behind the scenes is a comparison of vectors. Depending on whether the algorithm prioritizes high accuracy or greater speed, different values of p can be used. If we want to focus on fine, precise differences, p=1 is a good choice, as it weighs all differences equally. However, for a broader perspective, p=2 is more suitable, allowing the computer to estimate distances between vectors more quickly. Importantly, for all values of p≥1, the LP distance is a valid metric, preserving mathematical properties like the triangle inequality. But if p<1 is used, while the formula can still be applied, the result is no longer a true metric, as it violates the triangle inequality. This case is mostly relevant in theoretical discussions or specific applications. In data science and machine learning, p≥1 is typically used because it’s more intuitive and mathematically robust, upholding properties like the triangle inequality. Nonetheless, innovative research, such as that by Mirrokni, has made effective use of p<1, enabling computers to detect differences better and faster than ever before.
A Shortcut in the City of Data
No matter how effective our method for measuring similarity between data points is, we still face a major challenge: the realm of data is boundless. Millions of images, texts, sounds, and videos are stored in computers, and comparing each one individually to find a specific file would take an enormous amount of time. This is where a clever algorithm, developed through the efforts of researchers like Mirrokni, comes into play: Locality-Sensitive Hashing, or LSH. This method enables rapid data categorization by grouping similar items together. But how is this possible with such vast amounts of information? LSH employs a clever trick. Instead of directly comparing long vectors, it uses specialized mathematical functions called hash functions to transform them into shorter, summarized vectors that still retain essential information. It’s like having a smart summary of a book that captures its essence without needing to read every page. To preserve the approximate distance between these summarized vectors, LSH relies on a tool called p-stable distributions. These distributions provide random vectors of numbers, which, through a series of algebraic operations with the original vector, produce a condensed version of the data. The magic of these distributions lies in their ability to make the distances between the outputs a good approximation of the distances between the original data. This means we can determine which data points are closer to each other using a short vector for each piece of data, without handling the entire dataset. Another key aspect is that the type of p-stable distribution used depends on the distance being measured. For example, if we’re calculating Euclidean distance, the random vectors must come from a p-stable distribution known as the Gaussian distribution, which is suited for p=2. For other values of p, specific distributions are used. This approach allows similar data to be categorized quickly without exhaustive searches.
This innovative method eliminates the need to completely reformat data or force it into complex frameworks. Its simplicity is what leads to astonishing speed. In some experiments, LSH has performed up to 40 times faster than traditional methods like kd-tree, even in challenging scenarios where p is less than 1. This intelligent summarization transforms LSH into a seasoned assistant for recognizing differences. In the world of numbers and vectors, there may be no emotions involved, but similarity can be detected at remarkable speed.
 

Life on the Path of Rare Cells

In every scientific laboratory, there comes a point where the human eye alone is not enough, and one must look with greater precision and depth to uncover hidden secrets. At this very point, there are researchers who can see what remains invisible to others with curiosity and meticulousness. One such researcher is Mehmet Toner, and what follows is the story of his life—a journey that began with early curiosity in Istanbul and led him to MIT and Massachusetts General Hospital. His passion for science took shape during his studies in mechanical engineering, when questions far beyond the world of tools and gears captivated his mind. Later, encounters with professors who brought fresh perspectives to inquiry and problem-solving became a turning point in his life, paving the way for his research in microscopy and biomedical engineering.
The Seed of Curiosity
Mehmet Toner was born in 1958 in a small neighborhood in Istanbul. His early years were not particularly tied to a love for academics. He was more drawn to the soccer field and tennis court, seizing every opportunity to ski—a sport he had little access to. Although his inclination toward sports often overshadowed books and studies, the seed of scientific inquiry was planted at home. As he recalls, his family was always eager to learn, and his parents played a significant role in fostering his interest in education and knowledge. In those days, private universities did not exist in Turkey, and higher education was free—a privilege that allowed Toner to receive high-quality, cost-free education in Istanbul. These familial and societal foundations became the bedrock for a transformation that would later draw Toner from the world of sports to the realm of science.
Searching for a Path to Medicine
Although Mehmet Toner dreamed of becoming a surgeon or doctor, his entrance exam score in Turkey’s national university fell short, leading him to study mechanical engineering at Istanbul Technical University. It was there that his encounters with Professors Ester and Ramen Klich deepened his perspective on science. They introduced him to the joy of discovery and taught him that science means venturing into uncharted territories. Up until university, Toner’s main obstacle in the realm of science was his reluctance to study. However, during these years, he truly fell in love with learning. He transformed from an average student into one of the best at his university, and this newfound passion paved the way for his migration to the United States. He applied to several universities and ultimately found himself at MIT, where the emerging field of biomedical engineering was just taking shape. For Toner, this field was the perfect opportunity, as it allowed him to merge engineering with healthcare, bringing him closer to his original dream of contributing to medicine.
When Mehmet Toner arrived at MIT, he was still a mechanical engineer. In his early days there, he engaged in conversations with numerous professors to shape his future. At the time, biomedical engineering was not a Seriously considered field. Despite the skepticism and discouragement that this created, Toner made his choice. He wanted to pursue work that was both innovative and had a direct impact on medicine. He spoke with various professors, learned more, and ultimately decided to pursue biomedical engineering. His passion for healthcare kept him steadfast against all doubts and solidified his decision.
Guiding Hands
Toner pursued his doctorate under the mentorship of Professor Ernest Kravaho, a pioneering scientist in cryobiology at MIT. His doctoral research focused on the theory of intracellular ice formation, a study that first brought his name to prominence in the scientific community and later formed the foundation for his work in bio preserve. His five-year collaboration with Kravaho not only provided him with a strong scientific foundation but also led to a deep friendship that lasted until the death of his professor. This research ties his perspective to the applications of engineering in medicine, particularly in thermodynamics. Following his undergraduate mentors, Kravaho was the third person to profoundly shape his path.
Soon after, collaborations with Professors Martin Yarmush and Ronald Tompkins brought Toner to Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School. From the early 2000s, his focus shifted to microfluidics, a technology that simulates the flow of particles in microscopic channels. This technology was applied to the study of rare cells, including stem cells, embryonic cells, and, circulating tumor cells in the bloodstream. Toner recognized that this field holds transformative potential, as isolating rare cells could enable early monitoring and diagnosis of diseases like cancer, as well as the selection of appropriate treatments for patients.
Ideas Do Not Survive on Their Own
The journey from an idea to a product is complex. It all begins with an idea, which must then be scrutinized from various angles to reach the innovation stage, where its societal impact becomes clear and its potential to become a product is evaluated. From there, the real challenge begins: transitioning from invention to mass production. The product must consistently perform with high quality, pass clinical trials and regulatory requirements, withstand competition, and be produced on a global scale. Moreover, this process is costly and often takes more than a decade. Mehmet Toner paid little attention to patenting early in his research career, but a warning from his professor, Rafael Lee, made him realize that without legal protection, no idea could become a tangible product. Today, over a hundred patents are registered under Toner’s name, with a significant portion related to microfluidics. Some of these patents focus on developing microfluidic chips for detecting and analyzing rare cells, which are now applied in diverse fields such as brain health, tissue regeneration, and neurovascular applications.
Reflection of the Efforts
Mehmet Toner has received numerous scientific awards and recognition after years of dedication and research. Among his extensive accolades is the 2010 AACR Team Science Award. The Thoracic Oncology Research Group at the Dana-Farber Cancer Center received this award for demonstrating the connection between EGFR mutations and therapeutic responses to the drugs gefitinib and erlotinib and for identifying two new mechanisms of drug resistance. Additionally, in earlier years, Popular Mechanics named Toner among the recipients of its Breakthrough Award. In recent years, this researcher was also recognized in the 2025 Mustafa Prize for developing nano/microfluidic devices with clinical applications for isolating rare cells. With these achievements, Toner has created a pivotal intersection between engineering and medicine, opening new pathways for the disease diagnosis and treatment.
Over the years, Mehmet Toner has continued to pursue the path of research, where each small discovery can spark even bigger questions. His more than four decades of scientific work and university teaching have shifted his focus toward mentoring young researchers, securing patents, fostering environments for commercializing ideas, and addressing the ethical implications of emerging technologies. His everyday interests—from sports and visual arts to studying climate change—remain intertwined with his research, forming part of his journey into the uncharted frontiers of biomedical science. Toner believes that setbacks and challenges are inevitable, but the ability to analyze the situation, devise a strategy, and focus on the future rather than dwelling on the past is what matters. As he puts it, curiosity must be nurtured, and excessive structure should be minimized to empower young researchers, enabling progress to happen much faster than before.
 

Miniature Channels, Great Achievements  

The Hidden Journey on the Highway of Life
The body is a fabric woven from billions of cells—cells that, like orderly beads, are meticulously strung together one by one. Everything proceeds flawlessly until a single bead is missed, and if that one is not noticed in time, it can unravel the entire weave. Our story begins with one such cell, the missed bead. A tiny cell that breaks free from the order and, in silence, defies the body’s rules. At first, it might be just an imperceptible speck in a corner, but if this rebellious cell is not identified on time, its uncontrolled and chaotic proliferation can lay the foundation for what we call cancer. This cell is opportunistic, refusing to stay confined to its designated place. Over time, some of its kind hitch a ride on the bloodstream, embarking on a journey to expand their territory—a phenomenon known as metastasis. 
Blood is a highway teeming with millions of travelers: white and red blood cells, platelets, and more, all components of this crimson fluid, tirelessly serving the cause of life. Amid this bustling crowd, those few cancerous cells are unwelcome passengers, carrying sinister plans and evading detection by the immune system. Identifying these cells in such a dense throng is no simple task—and this is where science steps in.
Reporters of the Future in the Heart of Blood  
The significance of detecting Circulating Tumor Cells (CTCs) found in the blood extends beyond early diagnosis. These wandering cells speak of the future, revealing the aggressiveness of the disease, the likelihood of its recurrence, and the body’s response to treatment. This makes them a valuable tool for guiding therapeutic decisions. For instance, in patients with advanced prostate cancer, genetic analysis of these cells can predict which treatments are likely to be most effective. One key gene for such analysis is the AR gene. In its normal state, the AR gene produces mRNA that leads to the creation of the androgen receptor protein in prostate cells. This receptor, an intracellular/nuclear protein, becomes active upon binding to hormones like testosterone, signaling the cell to proliferate. However, in cancerous conditions, the situation changes. In some CTCs, the mRNA from the AR gene is abnormally spliced, producing a variant called AR-V7. This variant creates a receptor that remains active even without testosterone, continuously signaling cell proliferation. If AR-V7 is detected in a cancer cell isolated from a patient, it may indicate that the patient will not respond to certain therapies. Such insights allow doctors to tailor treatments more precisely to the genetic profile of each patient, saving time and resources.  
Diagnosis at the Cost of Consequences  
In critical situations, physicians must assess a patient’s health as quickly and accurately as possible. Meanwhile, researchers aim to identify and study these cancer cells before they spread further, but conventional tools have not always been effective. One of the most common traditional methods relies on antibodies—molecules that bind to specific receptors on the surface of cancer cells, effectively labeling them. Systems like CellSearch, long considered the gold standard, were designed based on this principle. In this method, specific antibodies are attached to tiny magnetic particles. If cancer cells are present in a blood sample, these antibodies bind to specific receptors on the cells, marking them. This binding imparts magnetic properties to the targeted cells. The sample is then introduced into a device with a controlled magnetic field in its walls, which acts like a targeted magnet, attracting the marked cells. Other blood cells are washed away and removed from the sample. However, this process faces significant challenges, including the variability of receptors on cancer cells. Some CTCs undergo changes as they enter the bloodstream, leading to the reduction or loss of the targeted receptors. Since these systems rely entirely on the presence of these receptors, altered cells can evade detection. Other methods, such as mechanical filters, have attempted to exploit differences in cell size and rigidity. However, these approaches often encounter issues like filter clogging or physical damage to the cells. The common weakness of these methods is their over-reliance on biological markers or the separation achieved at the cost of damaging cellular integrity. These inefficiencies have paved the way for the emergence of a new generation of tools.
Professional Cancer Hunters
In the realm of biomedical science, a profound transformation is underway. Once, diagnosing diseases relied on observing clinical symptoms or invasive biopsies. Today, a new horizon called liquid biopsy is emerging—a method that, instead of cutting and extracting, seeks to uncover the body’s hidden secrets with just a sample of blood. This technology hunts for rare cells and molecules that have escaped from tumors, inflamed tissues, or even the immune system into the bloodstream. At the heart of these advancements, microfluidic chips have carved out a unique place. These tiny devices can channel fluids like blood through pathways as narrow as a hair strand, enabling the separation, analysis, and examination of their various components. Practical examples of this technology were pioneered in the early 2000s through the work of Mehmet Toner. His team designed a chip called the CTC-Chip, revolutionizing the detection of stray tumor cells in the blood. The inner surfaces of this chip are coated with specific antibodies. As a blood sample flows gently through, cells bearing receptors for these antibodies—often tumor cells—are captured on the chip, while other blood cells pass through unaffected. Unlike traditional methods, this chip requires no pre-labeling of cells and can identify and trap cancer cells among billions of blood cells with remarkable precision.
To meet the growing need for processing larger blood volumes, Toner’s team developed an advanced version called the CTC-iChip. This chip employs a multi-stage process for cell separation, offering high precision and efficiency. In the first stage, cells are arranged in specific paths using ingeniously designed channels and inertial forces, as if guided by the silent laws of physics. Next, non-target cells, such as white blood cells pre-labeled with magnetic antibodies, are diverted using a magnetic field in a process called magnetophoresis. What remains are cancer cells, collected alive and intact without the need for direct labeling. This clever combination of physical separation and magnetophoresis enables the rapid, precise isolation of cancer cells from large blood samples, eliminating the need for complex and time-consuming methods. This breakthrough has enhanced human diagnostic capabilities, paving the way for more precise and personalized analyses. It marks another step toward a medical future that sees more and treats with greater accuracy.
The latest generations of microfluidic chips go beyond mere separation. They can now create simulated environments mimicking the human body. These chips are miniature laboratories that place cells under a microscope, studying their responses to drugs. No longer are cells merely isolated for observation under a microscope; instead, a dialogue is established with them. Each cell tells a story, and these cutting-edge technologies allow us to read and redirect those stories before they reach a tragic chapter.
Invading Caravans
In the course of his research, Toner discovered that it’s not always about a single rogue cell. Sometimes, cancer cells travel in groups. These floating structures, known as CTC clusters, possess greater invasive power than individual cancer cells. Studies have shown that their collective nature gives them the audacity to infiltrate, evade the immune system, and conquer new territories within the body. In this process, platelets—once recognized solely as immune and blood-clotting cells—play a surprising role by shielding and preserving these CTC clusters, hiding them from the immune system and aiding their escape. It’s clear that metastasis is not a solo act. To hunt these cancer caravans, chips like Cluster-Chip and PANDA have entered the fray—delicate yet intelligent tools that isolate these clusters from blood without the need for chemicals or specific labels, preserving their structure intact. The design of these chips hinges on characteristics such as the clusters’ shape, size, volume, and even their speed of movement in the bloodstream. Creating conditions that allow both single cells and complex cellular structures to be extracted without damage can enable precise molecular analyses, offering insights into how these cells evade the immune system.
Advancing the Medical Frontier
Until recently, microfluidics was seen solely as a hunter of cancer cells. Today, this tiny, intelligent technology has stepped into new arenas. The same chips that once tracked cancer cells can now identify stem cells, minute intercellular particles like extracellular vesicles, and even viruses. This technology is a sharp-eyed observer, fixed on blood and other bodily fluids, capable of detecting the smallest signals. With the help of nanostructures, which possess unique properties due to their minuscule size, the precision and efficiency of these systems have soared. These advancements not only aid in disease treatment but also deepen our understanding of cell-to-cell communication and signaling, potentially identifying warning signs before a disease even shows symptoms. These tools are currently being tested in research to study immune responses or detect certain infectious diseases early. While they have not yet reached widespread clinical use, they hold immense promise. No longer must we wait for severe symptoms or resort to complex, costly methods. These precise, silent chips provide valuable information that can transform the course of treatment from the outset.
Moreover, the success of this technology extends beyond laboratories and hospitals. In recent years, some of the technologies developed by Toner’s team have entered clinical trials and have been adopted as commercial diagnostic tests in clinics. These tools enable doctors to monitor cancer patients under treatment more precisely, quickly assess drug effectiveness, and adjust therapies as needed. Microfluidic advancements, particularly through the efforts of researchers like Toner, have paved the way for personalized medicine—a medical approach where each patient’s biological profile is uniquely analyzed, and treatments are tailored specifically to them.
These cutting-edge technologies have shown how tiny microfluidic tools can profoundly transform human lives on a grand scale. Within droplets of blood, among invisible particles, and at the heart of structures too small to be seen by the naked eye, their impact on human lives is strikingly visible. Researchers have built a bridge between biology and engineering, shaping the future of medicine—a future where every cell has a story to tell. In a world where treatment must be tailored to each individual, the key to this path may lie in reading these hidden cellular stories, which hold the power to alter the course of treatment and save lives.
 

A Solar Mind’s Odyssey  

A Journey that Wove Science from the Soil of India to the Sky of New Energies 
In India, where medicine and engineering are the shared dreams of many children, a young boy in Hyderabad’s elementary classrooms quietly charted a different path in his mind. He saw that while medicine was noble, its impact was often confined to a small sphere. This yearning for greater growth and progress shifted his choice, turning chemistry into the new course of his life—a decision that might have seemed minor to others but laid the foundation for a distinct future. This is the story of Mohammad Khaja Nazeeruddin: a tale of successive choices, each of which opens a new chapter in his life.
The First Life Equations 
Mohammed Khaja Nazeeruddin was born in 1957 in India and spent his childhood in Tumkur. At the tender age of five, he lost his father, plunging his family into new hardships. During this time, his brother took on the responsibility of supporting him, while his teacher’s affection and encouragement kept him motivated in his studies. Nazeeruddin’s scientific journey began at Osmania University in Hyderabad, where he chose a combination of chemistry and biology for his undergraduate studies. While studying the basic sciences meant understanding the foundations of the universe, it was primarily the start of a journey that later led to the development of solar cell technology. After graduating, Nazeeruddin took the entrance exam for advanced studies and, among numerous candidates, secured admission to programs in both genetics and chemistry. Although he was drawn to genetics, the field was not widely recognized in India at the time, so he pursued chemistry instead. After completing his bachelor’s degree in 1978 and master’s degree in 1980, his focus shifted to inorganic chemistry—a discipline concerned with the properties and reactions of all elements and non-hydrocarbon compounds. In 1986, under the guidance of his mentor, Dr. Taqi Khan, he completed his Ph.D. at Osmania University, a milestone that formally launched him into the research field. During those same years, Nazeeruddin also worked as a research associate at the Central Salt and Marine Chemicals Research Institute in Bhavnagar, where he took his first professional steps in applied research.
Pivotal Choices
In 1985, Nazeeruddin became a lecturer Osmania University’s Deccan College of Engineering and Technology. However, he soon realized that staying in that role would not satisfy his desire for progress. Dr. Taqi Khan encouraged him to pursue, he pursued a scholarship opportunity. His primary concern was finding ways to produce ammonia at lower costs and temperatures—a matter of great importance for Indian agriculture. With this idea, he attended an interview in Delhi, secured a scholarship, and sent applications to universities worldwide. Three distinguished professors—Bill Gibson from Imperial College London, Cotton from the University of Texas in the USA, and Michael Grätzel from EPFL in Switzerland—expressed an interest in collaborating with him. Ultimately, Nazeeruddin chose Grätzel, believing that his younger age would translate into bolder ideas and a better growth environment. Thus, he joined EPFL for his postdoctoral research. In Michael Grätzel’s group, which focused on renewable energy and catalysis, Nazeeruddin’s interests shifted toward renewable energy. He began his career as a postdoctoral researcher and has continueded in various roles over the years. From 2009, he served as a full professor at the School of Advanced Materials Chemistry at Korea University for 5 from 2012 to 2022, he was a full professor in the Molecular Engineering of Functional Materials group at EPFL. These years paved the way for his focus on a technology that now defines his work: perovskite solar cells. His emphasis on perovskite, an emerging material in solar cells, has contributed to a global shift in the perception of solar energy. Since the early 20th century, this crystalline material has garnered significant attention in recent years due to its exceptional properties in converting solar energy. Perovskite solar cells represent a new generation of clean energy technologies, that offer high efficiency, low production costs, and ease of manufacturing. The focus of Mohammad Nazeeruddin on this technology is a vital part of efforts to advance renewable energy sources.
A Footprint of Global Statistics and Recognition
Mohammad Nazeeruddin has published over 980 peer-reviewed articles in prestigious journals, authored 10 book chapters, and holds 1a total of 103 patents. His three primary patents include the N3 and N790 dyes, a two-step deposition method for manufacturing perovskite solar cells, and the use of a special coating to prevent lead leakage in these cells—innovations that have significantly advanced solar energy technologies. His research has been cited more than 194,000 times, with an h-index of 197, placing him among the world’s most-cited scientists. From 2014 to 2024, Nazeeruddin consistently appeared on the ISI Highly Cited Researchers list and has been invited to speak at over 450 international conferences. His collaborations extend beyond academia, encompassing major industrial partners such as Panasonic, NEC, TOYOTA-AISIN, TOYOTA-Europe Motors, Solaronix, and ABENGOA, with some of his research funded by these entities. His contributions earned him a place among Thomson Reuters’ 19 Most Influential Scientific Minds in 2015. Additionally, Nazeeruddin is a member of the European Chemical Society, the European Academy of Sciences, the Royal Society of Chemistry in the UK, and the Telangana Academy of Sciences, reflecting the breadth of his international scientific engagement. He has also served on the editorial and review boards of several prestigious scientific journals, roles that underscore his significant influence in critiquing, evaluating, and guiding research trends in his specialized fields.
A Testament to Dedication
Throughout his professional career, Mohammad Nazeeruddin has received an array of scientific accolades, receiving at least 20 national and international awards, each affirming his contributions to the advancement of renewable energy knowledge, the development of metal complexes, and particularly perovskite solar cells. He attributes these honors to his efforts in engineering perovskite compositions, optimizing interfaces, and improving charge transport layers—innovations that have achieved record efficiencies in this technology and offered a fresh perspective on the future of clean energy. Among these accolades, some stand out prominently. In 2021, Nazeeruddin received the prestigious Khwarizmi International Award in Fundamental Sciences. In 2025, he was awarded the Mustafa Prize. He has also received numerous fellowships and awards in countries such as India, Japan, Brazil, and Switzerland. Each of these recognition paints a picture of his impact on a field addressing one of humanity’s most critical challenges: developing sustainable energy for a greener future.
The journey of Mohammad Nazeeruddin’s encapsulates a series of choices and experiences. At various stages of his life, he made decisions among different disciplines and mentors, each of which opened a new path. From his early days at Osmania University where he weighed genetics against chemistry, to his decision to move to Switzerland to work with Michael Grätzel, and to his later focus on renewable energy and perovskite solar cells, every step of his career woven a new thread. Beyond numbers and accolades, his life exemplifies the fusion of science with practical applications. His story illustrates that research is not about reaching an endpoint but an ongoing journey—one that continues to unfold, with new chapters yet to be written.
 

Perovskite Solar Cells Revolution  

The Dream of Limitless Electricity
We have all experienced power outages countless times—moments when cooling devices stop working, lights go out, and silence and darkness take over. These situations deprive us of even the most basic daily needs. Such experiences remind us of our deep dependence on electricity and the critical importance of access to energy. This reliance persists while a significant portion of electricity is still generated by burning fossil fuels—resources that are not only finite and depleting but also cause widespread environmental harm through greenhouse gas emissions, air pollution, and the exacerbation of the climate crisis. These crises threaten human health and the future of our planet. In response to these challenges, renewable energy sources, particularly solar energy, have emerged as sustainable and clean alternatives. Solar energy is one of the cleanest and most accessible options has drawn attention for years. However, conventional technologies for harnessing it have faced issues such as high costs, complex production processes, and limited efficiency. In this context, perovskite solar cells have emerged as a new generation of solar technology, rekindling hope. These cells, with their lower costs and higher efficiency, have challenged the limitations of previous technologies and captured widespread attention. In this field, researchers like Mohammad Nazeeruddin have played a key role in advancing this emerging technology, paving the way for clean, sustainable, and accessible energy for all.
The Old Brick of the Solar Cell Building
When we talk about solar panels, we’re actually referring to small units called solar cells—tiny components arranged together to capture sunlight and convert it into electricity. In the first generation of this technology, these cells were made from a material called silicon. In this structure, a solar cell consists of two types of silicon with distinct properties. The first type, known as n-type, is doped with phosphorus, which gives it extra electrons. The second type, called p-type, is doped with elements like boron, resulting in a shortage of electrons. In p-type silicon, this electron deficiency creates empty spaces called holes that are eager to be filled. When these two types of silicon are placed side by side, electrons move from the n-type to the p-type at their boundary, filling these holes. Once this electron transfer is complete, the resulting charge difference between the two silicon types creates a special region known as the depletion zone. This zone, influenced by an internal electric field, acts as a barrier, preventing the free movement of additional electrons. At this point, electrons can no longer easily pass through this short path between the n-type and p-type. This field acts like a gatekeeper, preventing the recombination of electrons and holes and creating a new pathway for electron flow. From then on, if the energy from light particles (photons) dislodges an electron from a silicon molecule, it helps push the electron and hole in opposite directions, generating an electric current. The freed electrons move toward an external circuit, travel through it, and return to the cell, where they recombine with holes. This continuous movement is the electric current derived from sunlight.
The Hero Called Perovskite
Silicon solar cells have been the foundation of solar panels for years. Despite their many successes, they still face limitations such as low efficiency, high costs, complex manufacturing processes, and reliance on rare materials. These challenges paved the way for new technologies, leading to the emergence of a new generation of solar cells known as perovskite solar cells. The term "perovskite" originally refers to a specific crystal structure with the general formula ABX₃. In this structure, A is typically an organic cation like methylammonium, B is a metal such as lead, and X is a halogen like iodine. While the basic operation of these cells is similar to that of silicon cells, their constituent materials, thanks to their well-organized crystal structure and chemical flexibility, can efficiently absorb light and transfer electrical charges.
Under the Umbrella of Additives
As promising as perovskites are, their structural stability diminishes when exposed to moisture and heat. This characteristic poses a major obstacle to their widespread commercialization, and this is where Mohammad Nazeeruddin’s efforts stand out. To address this challenge, various approaches have been explored. One such approach involves combining two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) structures, which not only enhances resistance to moisture penetration but also improves long-term performance stability. In perovskite solar cells, the crystal lattice extends in three dimensions, forming a 3D structure. In the mentioned method, by adding fluorinated groups such as fluoro-phenyl ethylamine and pentafluoro-benzylamine to the surface layer, this layer is transformed into a 2D structure. The resulting structure is hydrophobic, acting like a shield to prevent degradation of the cell’s core components. In another study, compounds like alkylphosphonic acid ω-ammonium chloride were introduced, serving as molecular bridges that connect the edges of perovskite crystals, creating a more cohesive and robust structure. This surface modification enabled the cells to retain over 80% of their initial efficiency even after a week of exposure to 55% humidity, while uncoated samples rapidly lost their performance. Additionally, research demonstrated that simultaneously adding a dopant like methylammonium chloride (to tune electrical properties) and an additive like 1,3-bis(cyanomethyl)imidazolium chloride (to enhance crystalline and chemical quality) resulted in the formation of a uniform and stable perovskite layer. This synergy played a significant role in reducing defects and boosting performance. Furthermore, the use of phosphonic acid additives improved the cohesion and order of the perovskite crystal structure. Such optimizations not only increased efficiency from around 9% to over 16% but also significantly enhanced the cells’ performance stability under high relative humidity conditions.
Electrons in Energy Traps
To improve the efficiency and stability of perovskite solar cells, a deeper understanding of electron behavior and the energy levels of the layers became essential. As previously mentioned, a solar cell consists of multiple layers, each playing a distinct role in converting sunlight into electricity. The most critical of these is the active layer, where light is absorbed, and electrons are dislodged from their atoms to generate an electric current. Each material in this structure has specific energy levels for its electrons. If the energy levels between layers, such as the absorber layer and the charge transport layers, are not properly aligned, electrons lose energy or become trapped during transfer. One cause of this trapping is the presence of energy traps—points in the material’s structure where, due to defects or crystal mismatches, electrons are captured, preventing their movement through the circuit. This phenomenon leads to reduced current, energy loss, and ultimately lower efficiency. To tackle this issue, various strategies were proposed. One approach involved introducing non-thermal plasmas into the perovskite structure, which deactivated energy traps caused by crystal defects and optimized energy level alignment. Additionally, efforts were made to optimize the chemical composition of the active layer. For instance, Mohammad Nazeeruddin’s team successfully formed more uniform and ordered crystals by adding a controlled amount of excess lead iodide (PbI₂) to the perovskite layer. These crystals had fewer traps and delivered higher efficiency. The result of these modifications was the development of cells with efficiencies exceeding 20%, which retained a significant portion of their performance even after exposure to real-world environmental conditions. Such advancements underscore that achieving an ideal composition requires a deeper understanding and precise engineering of the behavior of electrical charges.
Uniform Crystals with a Green Concern
In the ongoing efforts to optimize fabrication processes, has focused on improving the methods for producing perovskite solar cells. One of the challenges in manufacturing these cells was creating a uniform, high-quality layer of the light-absorbing material—a problem that manifested in early methods like one-step deposition due to irregular crystal growth. Mohammad and his colleagues advanced this field by introducing a novel approach called sequential deposition. This two-step process begins with the formation of a lead iodide layer, which is then exposed to an organic halide solution to transform into perovskite. This method allows better control over crystal growth, enhancing the uniformity and efficiency of the cells. Cells produced using this technique retained up to 80% of their performance even after 500 hours of operation. However, advancements in performance are only part of the story. Environmental sustainability has also become a significant concern in the development of perovskite solar cells. One of the most challenging issues is the use of lead in their structure—a heavy and toxic metal that, despite its critical role in boosting efficiency, raises serious environmental safety concerns. To address this, researchers have explored low-lead or lead-free structures, with some proposing the use of tin as a substitute for lead. Although these alternatives are not yet as efficient as lead-based compositions, they represent a crucial step toward combining high performance with environmental responsibility. Nazeeruddin’s team ultimately succeeded in preventing lead leakage from these cells by using a specialized coating.
Broadly speaking, perovskite solar cells represent a social innovation that enables the provision of affordable and reliable electricity in underserved regions, reduces global reliance on fossil fuels, and promotes energy equity. These achievements, built over 12 years, have paved the way for the development of a new generation of solar cells with practical and commercial potential, facilitating the realization of sustainable and accessible energy systems. As Nazeeruddin states: “We have come a long way. We’ve gone from efficiencies below 10% to 26%, a figure that has been officially verified and published in research papers. This is a tremendous achievement. In terms of stability, we’ve also made significant progress, and now we can say these cells are stable and ready for market entry. However, it will take a few more years to achieve widespread adoption. When that happens, most developing and underdeveloped countries will be able to adopt them easily, as they are considered a low-tech product from a technological perspective.”